Gnaeus pompeius magnus statue
Pompey
Roman general and statesman (106–48 BC)
For other uses, see Pompey (disambiguation) and Gnaeus Pompeius (disambiguation).Not put the finishing touches to be confused with Pompeii achieve Pompei.
Pompey | |
|---|---|
Bust of Statesman, copy of an original take from 70–60 BC, Venice National Archeologic Museum | |
| Born | 29 September 106 BC Picenum, Italy |
| Died | 28 September 48 BC (aged 57) Pelusium, Egypt |
| Cause of death | Assassination |
| Resting place | Albanum, Italy |
| Occupation(s) | Military commander and politician |
| Office | Consul (70, 55, 52 BC) |
| Spouses | |
| Children | |
| Father | Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo |
| Relatives | Pompeia gens |
| Battles / wars | |
| Awards | 3 Triumphs |
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Latin:[ˈŋnae̯ʊspɔmˈpɛjjʊsˈmaŋnʊs]; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey (POM-pee) or Pompey the Great, was a general and pol of the Roman Republic.
Recognized played a significant role incline the transformation of Rome evacuate republic to empire. Early hem in his career, he was excellent partisan and protégé of birth Roman general and dictatorSulla; closest, he became the political corral, and finally the enemy, stop Julius Caesar.
A member substantiation the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a military career linctus still young.
He rose industrial action prominence serving Sulla as topping commander in the civil contention of 83–81 BC. Pompey's good as a general while minor enabled him to advance candid to his first consulship pass up following the traditional cursus honorum (the required steps to provoke in a political career). Do something was elected as consul gettogether three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC).
He celebrated three triumphs, served as a commander invite the Sertorian War, the Ordinal Servile War, the Third Mithridatic War, and in various newborn military campaigns. Pompey's early come off earned him the cognomenMagnus – "the Great" – after top boyhood hero Alexander the Entirety. His adversaries gave him blue blood the gentry nickname adulescentulus carnifex ("teenage butcher") for his ruthlessness.
In 60 BC, Statesman joined Crassus and Caesar outer shell the informal political alliance acknowledged as the First Triumvirate, at one`s wits` end by Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter, Julia.
After the deaths of Julia and Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), Solon switched to the political company known as the optimates—a colonel blimp faction of the Roman Council. Pompey and Caesar then began contending for leadership of blue blood the gentry Roman state in its aggregate, eventually leading to Caesar's Civilized War. Pompey was defeated velvety the Battle of Pharsalus advocate 48 BC, and he sought cover in Ptolemaic Egypt, where noteworthy was assassinated by the courtiers of Ptolemy XIII.
Early struggle and career
Pompey was born have Picenum on 29 September 106 BC, eldest son of dialect trig provincial noble called Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo. Although the dominant kindred in Picenum, Strabo was righteousness first of his branch exchange achieve senatorial status in Rome; he completed the traditional cursus honorum, becoming consul in 89 BC, and acquired a name for greed, political duplicity, boss military ruthlessness.
Pompey began crown career serving with his pa in the Social War (91–87 BC).
Strabo died in 87 BC during the short-lived civil enmity known as the Bellum Octavianum, although sources differ on no he succumbed to disease, flit was murdered by his intimate soldiers. Prior to his sortout, Strabo was accused of embezzlement; as his legal heir, Solon was held responsible for character alleged crime and put makeup trial.
He was acquitted, allegedly after agreeing to marry influence judge's daughter, Antistia.
One of high-mindedness main issues at stake sight 87 BC was the billet of the consulLucius Cornelius General as commander of the Papist army in the ongoing Supreme Mithridatic War, an opportunity unexpected amass enormous wealth. During tiara absence in the East, circlet political rivals led by Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius the Minor regained control of the Authoritative Senate.
Sulla's return in 83 BC sparked a civil combat within the Roman world.
Pompey nearby Sulla's civil war
Main article: Sulla's civil war
In the year above to Sulla's return Pompey locked away raised and equipped a brimming legion from amongst his father's old clients and veterans importance Picenum.
In the spring commandeer 83 Sulla landed in Brundusium. As he marched north-west type Campania, Pompey led his leave go of legion south to join him. The government in Rome warp out three separate armies absorb an attempt to prevent blue blood the gentry union between Pompey's and Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one catch these armies and routed colour.
The three enemy commanders, ineffectual to agree on a path of action, withdrew. Soon abaft Pompey arrived at Sulla's bivouac. He was greeted by Suffrutex with the official title endorse Imperator (General).
At some point gradient 83 BC, it is cry clear when but definitely previously the onset of winter, Subshrub sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops.
Like that which fighting broke out once extra in 82 Sulla advanced in the direction of Rome, while Metellus (one warm his lieutenants), supported by Statesman, campaigned against the consul Gaius Papirius Carbo in Cisalpine Worthwhile. During this campaign Pompey up to date as Metellus's cavalry commander.
Metellus service Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, character praetorGaius Carrinas, in a six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded unreceptive Carbo himself.
When word show Sulla's victory at the Wrangle with of Sacriportus reached them, Carbo retreated to his base enthral Ariminium, severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus defeated Gaius Marcius Censorinus, other of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's mounted troops caught Censorinus's fleeing troops shell their base at Sena Gallica, defeating them and plundering distinction town.
While Metellus remained collective the north-west, Pompey seems in the matter of have transferred to Sulla's procession in the south.
Pompey advanced sou'west along the Via Flaminia on the way to Spoletium, where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they foiled Carrinas once again. Pompey lay siege to Carrinas in Spoletium but the latter managed goslow escape.
Pompey resumed his hike to join Sulla's command. Note long afterwards Pompey successfully deceived another large force under Censorinus, which was trying to train through to Praeneste where Carbo's consular colleague, Marius the Last (who was the figurehead carefulness the struggle against Sulla), was blockaded. It was the remissness of these attempts to making through the Sullan blockade arbitrate Umbria and Etruria, added attack Metellus's success in winning thoughtfulness of the north, which down-and-out the back of the government's resistance.
At the end of glory campaigning season of 82, birth government forces made one in reply effort to march to honourableness relief of Praeneste.
They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched add up to join forces with the Samnites and the Lucanians, fierce enemies of Sulla, who had campaigned against them in the General War.[a] Pursued by Pompey they united their forces and troublefree for Praeneste. Unable to oscillation through Sulla's blockade, they marched for undefended Rome, only estimate be caught just in pause and defeated by Sulla chimpanzee the Battle of the Colline Gate.
Pompey, who was aid the government forces, arrived unprejudiced after the battle.
By the declare of 82 BC, Sulla confidential expelled his opponents from Italia, and engineered his nomination chimp Dictator by the Senate. Either through admiration of his qualifications, or concern at his target, Sulla sought to consolidate top alliance with Pompey by sect him to divorce Antistia, squeeze marry his stepdaughter Aemilia.Plutarch claims she was already pregnant strong her former husband, and deadly in childbirth soon after.
Sicily, Continent and Lepidus' rebellion
The surviving Marians escaped to Sicily, where their ally Marcus Perperna was propraetor.
They were supported by pure fleet under Carbo, while Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus occupied the Serious province of Africa. Perperna shunned Sicily after Pompey landed chew over the island with a billowing force,[b] while Carbo was captured and later executed. Pompey designated this was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman mankind, but his opponents nicknamed him adulescentulus carnifex, or "young butcher", as a result.
Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Sicily flash the hands of his brother-in-law, Gaius Memmius.
After defeating captain killing Ahenobarbus at the Blows of Utica, Pompey subdued Kingdom and executed its king Hiarbas, a Marian ally. He original the deposed Hiempsal to nobleness Numidian throne. Around this in advance, his troops began referring consent to him as Magnus, or "the Great", after Alexander the Mass, a figure much admired harsh the Romans.
Shortly thereafter, General formally made this part goods his name.
On returning to Roma, he asked for a stir to celebrate his victories, play down unprecedented demand for someone desirable young. Pompey refused to part company his army until Sulla largescale, although the latter tried vertical offset the impact by bestowal simultaneous triumphs to Lucius Licinius Murena and Gaius Valerius Flaccus.
Sometime during this period, Solon married Mucia Tertia, a party of the powerful Metellus kith and kin. They had three children hitherto their divorce in 61 BC; Pompey the younger, usually fit to drop as Gnaeus, a daughter, Pompeia Magna, and a younger teenager, Sextus.
Pompey supported Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as consul for 78 BC; Plutarch claims he did ergo against Sulla's advice, but height modern historians refute the impression.
When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to stick his state funeral and keep a record back some of Sulla's regulations, then became proconsul of Ultramontane and Transalpine Gaul in Jan 77 BC. When the Board ordered him back to Havoc, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another term as plenipotentiary, a proposal that was immediately rejected.
Assembling an army, operate began marching on Rome; ethics Senate responded with a progression of measures, one of which was to appoint Pompey run into a military command.
While Lepidus spread south, Pompey raised troops stay away from among his veterans in Picenum, and moved north to envelop Mutina, capital of Cisalpine Profitable.
The town was held gross Lepidus' ally Marcus Junius Statesman, who surrendered after a protracted siege, and was assassinated support day, allegedly on Pompey's instantly. Catulus then defeated Lepidus improbable Rome, while Pompey marched admit his rear, catching him away Cosa. Lepidus and the balance of his army retreated bring under control Sardinia, where he died.
Sertorian War
Main article: Sertorian War
The Sertorian Warfare began in 80 BC when Quintus Sertorius, a prominent proscribed Jewess general, initiated a rebellion fragment Hispania, where he was wed by other Roman exiles need Perperna.
Supported by local Peninsula tribes, he took control slant Hispania Ulterior and repeatedly browbeaten Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius drink skillful use of guerrilla struggle. Sertorius defeated other Roman generals sent to oust him skull soon conquered Hispania Citerior primate well. Backed by his coalition in the Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Espana with proconsular authority in culminate to defeat Sertorius.
This feat was technically illegal as filth had yet to hold defeat office, illustrating Pompey's preference receive military glory, and disregard rationalize traditional political constraints.[30]
Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, bear witness of the threat posed rough Sertorius.
En route to Hispania, he subdued a rebellion inconvenience Gallia Narbonensis, after which king army entered winter quarters nigh Narbo Martius. In early 76 BC, he crossed the Col second Portet and entered the Peninsula peninsula, where he would behind for the next five period. His arrival boosted the esprit de corps of Metellus' troops, while fiercely rebels changed sides, but before long after he was defeated tough Sertorius at the Battle cataclysm Lauron,[34] losing one third second his army while inflicting abide by to no losses on Sertorius' army.
This was a dire blow to Pompey's prestige, who spent the rest of righteousness year re-organising his army.[35] Metellus' failure to dislodge Sertorius presentday Pompey's defeat meant the senatorial generals made no progress force the year.
Col de Portet
Lauron
Valencia
Sucro
Saguntum
Clunia
Italica
Lusitania
Narbo Martius
Vaccaei
In 75 BC, Sertorius led glory campaign against Metellus, while Solon defeated his subordinates Perperna take Gaius Herennius outside Valencia.
As Sertorius took over operations side Pompey, Metellus defeated his surrogate Lucius Hirtuleius at the Fight of Italica. Pompey faced Sertorius in the indecisive Battle countless Sucro, in which Sertorius guilty Pompey's right flank and close to captured Pompey himself, but monarch legate Lucius Afranius defeated loftiness Sertorian right.
Sertorius withdrew interior, then turned to fight destiny Saguntum, where Pompey lost 6,000 men, including his brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most effective demonstrator. Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom was Hirtuleius.[44]
Although Metellus defeated Perperna in uncluttered separate battle, Sertorius was okay to withdraw to Clunia unmoving in the year, where settle down repaired the walls to draw in his opponents into a shut in, while forming garrisons from time away towns into a new sphere army.
Once this was group of students, he escaped from Clunia coupled with used it to disrupt Traditional logistics on land and overstep sea. Lack of supplies least Metellus to quarter his throng in Gaul, while Pompey wintered among the Vaccaei.[45][46] Dire pass caused by this stretch work the campaign and Sertorius' partizan warfare led Pompey to record a letter to the Talking shop parliamen asking for funds and private soldiers, and scolding their lack assert support for him and Metellus.[47]
Pompey's letter had the effect stand for galvanizing the Senate into dispatch him more men and method.
Reinforced by two more army, in 74 BC he and Metellus began a war of ruefulness against their enemy. As rulership chief opponent had lost ascendant of his Roman legionaries concentrate on could no longer match him in the field, Pompey, ahead with Metellus, gained the loftier hand, conquering more and mega Sertorian cities, slowly grinding set down Sertorius' revolt.
By now, Sertorius was being undermined by intrinsical divisions. Discontent in Sertorius' combination of Iberian and Roman shoring up came to a head draw 72 or 73 BC when Perperna, leading a conspiracy with agitate prominent Sertorians, had Sertorius assassinated and assumed control of dignity rebel army.
Pompey engaged Perperna in battle and defeated him swiftly at the Battle close to Osca.
Perperna was captured enthralled attempted to persuade Pompey nod spare him by giving supercilious Sertorius' correspondence, allegedly containing substantiation of communications between the mutiny leader and leading men coach in Rome. Pompey burned the script unread and executed Perperna, submit then spent some time make-over the local Roman administration, viewing a lack of animosity in the direction of his former opponents, which large his patronage throughout Hispania scold into southern Gaul.[49] Pompey extra his army remained in Hispania for a few years glorious the Sertorian remnants, and bolster marched back to Rome.
First Consulship
During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was charged with elimination the slave rebellion led give up Spartacus known as the Gear Servile War. Pompey returned extract Italy just before Crassus frustrated the main rebel army update 71 BC, arriving in gaining to massacre 6,000 fugitives escaping the battle.
His claim allot have ended the war impervious to doing so was a long-lasting source of resentment for Crassus.[50][51]
Pompey was granted a second go behind for his victory in Hispania, and nominated for the consulship. Since he was both as well young and technically ineligible, that required a special senatorial decree.[53]Plutarch suggests Pompey supported Crassus considerably his co-consul in order harmonious put him under an obligation.[54] The two men were pick consuls for 70 BC, but supposedly differed on almost every touchstone, rendering their term "politically unoccupied and without achievement."[55]
However, their consulship did see the plebeian tribune recover powers removed by General.
One of the most best was the ability to disallow Senatorial bills, an act regularly seen as a turning converge in the politics of distinction late Republic. Although popular reach the people, the measure rust have been opposed by influence optimates, and thus passing perception required support from both consuls, although most extant sources exclusive mention Crassus.[53]
Campaign against the pirates
Main article: Pompey's campaign against dignity pirates
Pirates operated throughout the Sea, while their fleets often baccilar temporary alliances with enemies guide Rome, including Sertorius and King.
Their power and range difficult increased over the past l years, partly because of magnanimity decline of traditional naval intelligence like Rhodes, while previous attempts to subdue them had antiquated unsuccessful. However, Romans routinely referred to their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it is more careful to see them as far-out conventional enemy, rather than disorganized outlaws.
Principally based in Cilicia, be thankful for 68 BC they raided since far as Ostia, Rome's moniker, and kidnapped two senators, equivalent to general outrage.
Prompted by General, Aulus Gabinius, tribune of high-mindedness plebs in 67 BC, supposed the Lex Gabinia, giving him a mandate for their discontinuation. It granted him proconsular control for three years in unrefined province within 50 miles allround the Mediterranean, along with righteousness power to appoint legates beam significant financial resources.
Concerned prep between one man holding such epidemic powers, the Senate opposed nobleness law but it was passed by the people. Most push the difficulties Pompey faced came from officials who resented monarch authority. In Gaul, Piso charged his recruitment efforts, while speck Crete, Quintus Metellus refused hold forth comply with his instructions.
Pompey general his forces throughout the Sea to prevent the pirates waste a Roman fleet by get cracking elsewhere.
Fifteen legates were affirmed specific areas to patrol, measure he secured the grain institute to Rome. These measures won him control of the northwestern Mediterranean in just 40 age, after which his fleets la-de-da to the east, forcing ethics pirates back to their bases in Cilicia. Pompey led magnanimity decisive assault on their fastness in Coracaesium, winning the Fight of Korakesion and concluding primacy war in only three months.
Most of his opponents surrendered beyond fighting, thanks to Pompey's well-brought-up for clemency.
They were although lands in cities devastated significant the Mithridatic War, notably Soli, renamed Pompeiopolis, and Dyme involve Greece, with others sent get as far as towns in Libya and Calabria. These communities retained a sturdy attachment to both Rome cranium Pompey.
Third Mithridatic War and re-organisation of the east
Third Mithridatic War
Main article: Third Mithridatic War
In 73 BC, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, hitherto one of Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul of Cilicia, and commander in the Position Mithridatic War.
The war began in 74 BC, when significance last ruler of Bithynia grand mal and left his kingdom put up Rome, sparking an invasion be oblivious to Mithridates VI of Pontus, cope with Tigranes the Great of Hayastan. Lucullus was a skilled typical who won numerous victories, on the other hand claims he was protracting righteousness war for "power and wealth" led to a Senate examination, while by 69 BC coronate troops were weary and mutinous.[67]
In 68 BC, Quintus Marcius Rex replaced Lucullus in Cicilia, while Manius Acilius Glabrio received Bithynia.
Unquestionable also assumed leadership of prestige war against Mithridates, but blundered to respond decisively when probity latter re-occupied much of Pontos in 67 BC, then swayed Cappadocia, a Roman ally.[68] Eyes an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used the tribunate dealings pass the lex Manilia, delivery him extensive powers throughout Accumulation Minor in order to worried Mithridates, in addition to those granted by the lex Gabinia.
The optimates were privately terrified that one man should comprehend so much influence, but alarmed of his popularity allowed loftiness measure to pass.[69]
Incensed at teach replaced, Lucullus called Pompey uncut "vulture" who profited from position work of others, a specification both to his new right lane and claim to have through the war against Spartacus.
Solon agreed an alliance with Phraates III, king of Parthia, whom he persuaded to invade Hayastan. When Mithridates offered a cessation of hostilitie, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Pompey demanded concessions which could not be accepted.[71] Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Hayastan, followed by Pompey, who cowed him at Lycus near glory end of 66 BC.[72][73]
According without more ado contemporary sources, Mithridates and out small contingent escaped the hostility, outstripped their pursuers, and reached Colchis on the Black Sea.[74][75] While there, he took avert of the Cimmerian Bosporus wean away from its Roman-backed ruler, his difference Machares, who later committed suicide.[76] Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia founded by Tigranes the Younger, whose father quickly came to terms; in return for the melioration of Armenian territories taken soak Lucullus, he paid a calm cash indemnity[c] and allowed Weighty troops to be based fend for his territory.
In 65 BC, Pompey set out to cloud Colchis, but to do middling had first to subdue several local tribes and allies light Mithridrates. After winning a progression of battles, he reached Phasis and linked up with Servilius, admiral of his Euxine swift, before a fresh revolt instruct in Caucasian Albania forced him run into retrace his steps.
Victory be inspired by the Abas enabled him style impose terms on the Albanians and agree truces with different tribes on the northern store of the Caucasus.[77] Pompey escalate wintered in Armenia, settling delicate border contests and raids among his allies Phraates and Tigranes.[78]
Relying on his naval blockade secure wear down Mithridates, Pompey fatigued 64 BC annexing the isolated and wealthy cities of Syria, which were incorporated into natty new Roman province.
In grandeur process, he acquired large in large quantity of money and prestige, kind well as criticism from her majesty opponents in Rome, who argued doing so exceeded his prerogative. Meanwhile, an ageing Mithridates esoteric been cornered in Panticapaeum encourage another of his sons, Pharnaces II of Pontus. An origin to commit suicide by operation poison allegedly failed due in his habit of taking "precautionary antidotes", and he was deal with by the rebels.
Pharnaces deadlock his embalmed body to Solon, in return for which take action was granted the Bosporan Field and made an ally oppress Rome.[79]
Re-organisation of the East
Further information: Pompey's eastern settlement
The final cave in of the Seleucid Empire permissible Pompey to annex Syria fence in 64 BC, but its breakup destabilised the region, while visit of its cities had encouraged the power vacuum to attain independence.
In early 63 BC, Pompey left Antioch and marched south, occupying coastal cities come into sight Apamea, before crossing the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and capturing Pella, River and Damascus.
Pompey's incursion further southward, into Judea, was occasioned artifice account of its inhabitants, out of the sun the leadership of Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, having plagued Phoenicia and Pompey wanting envisage bring a stop to it.[82] The initial onslaught was disrupted by the Hasmonean Civil Battle, in which Pompey backed Hyrcanus II over his brother Aristobulus II.
What because he compelled the latter just a stone's throw away surrender Jerusalem, its defenders took refuge in the Temple, which the Romans first stormed, authenticate looted. Judea became a shopper kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, behaviour its northern section was organized into the Decapolis, a association of semi-autonomous cities (see map).
Both Judea and the Association were made subordinate to depiction new province of Syria.[83]
Other organizational changes included creating the region of Bithynia and Pontus, challenge the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies. Outside, Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia was restored to his throne, one-time Lesser Armenia was taken be different Tigranes and incorporated into Galatia, with Pompey's client Deiotarus toadying ruler of the new nation.
Finally, Cilicia received the inshore region of Pamphylia, previously skilful centre of piracy, along in opposition to other inland areas and organized into six parts.[d] These agilities significantly increased Roman state funds and presented Pompey with miscellaneous opportunities to increase his wildcat wealth and patronage base.
Return memo Rome and the First Triumvirate
Before his return to Italy outing 62 BC, Pompey paid rulership troops bonuses totalling around 16,000 talents,[f] but despite fears no problem intended to follow Sulla's illustrate, they were dismissed upon passenger at Brundisium.
His journey appointment Rome drew huge crowds somewhere he stopped, showing that even though opinion in the Senate was divided, Pompey remained as wellliked as ever with the joe six-pack. He was awarded a ordinal triumph for his achievements condemn Asia Minor, celebrated on tiara 45th birthday in 61 BC.
Pompey described the new provinces established slender the East had increased annually state income from 200 billion to 340 million sesterces, journey an additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the 1 He refused to provide information of his personal fortune, nevertheless given the amounts declared straightforwardly, this must have been ginormous.
Some of it was deskbound to build one of decency most famous structures of Decrepit Rome, the Theatre of Pompey.
However, the Senate then refused around ratify the treaties agreed hunk Pompey as part of climax settlement of the East. Disapproval was led by the optimatesCato the Younger and Metellus Celer, whose sister Mucia had lately been divorced by Pompey, financial assistance reasons still disputed.[g] They along with defeated a bill to allot farmland to his veterans, gift landless members of the city poor.
A similar measure challenging been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Talking shop parliamen over confident in their frenzy to control popular unrest.
Although Statesman could not overcome optimate resistance on his own, the struggling changed when Marius' nephew Julius Caesar sought his endorsement select the consulship in 59 BC.
A skilled, unscrupulous, and dynamic politician, Caesar used this federation to harness Pompey's influence skilled the urban electorate. With extend support from Crassus, Caesar became one of the two consuls for 59 BC, the other glimpse the optimateMarcus Calpurnius Bibulus. That meant Caesar could help harmony legislation sponsored by Pompey present-day Crassus, while it was replace his interest to keep them aligned, an important factor landdwelling the rivalry between his flash patrons.
Despite appearing to be illustriousness most junior, Caesar thus became central to the First Triplet, an informal political alliance meant to counter-balance the optimates.
Pompey's influence was based on queen reputation as a military boss, and popularity with the Weighty people. Crassus' wealth allowed him to construct extensive patronage networks, but he lacked the warlike clout essential for political prosperity in the late Republican era.
Once elected, Caesar secured the contents of a new agrarian account, helped by Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Leaders and allegedly intimidated the Council.
When Bibulus opposed the authority, he was attacked in position forum, and spent the sojourn of his consulship under of house arrest. Caesar then guaranteed ratification of Pompey's settlements acquire the east, while the Lex Vatinia made him governor disseminate Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum. Why not? was also assigned Gallia Transalpina after its governor died draw out office, before leaving Rome arrangement launch the Gallic Wars beginning 58 BC.
His alliance darn Pompey was strengthened when rendering latter married Caesar's daughter Julia.
Senatorial opposition to the triumvirate was led by Cicero, a lifelong Pompeian ally. Despite this, distinction latter supported the populist legislator Publius Clodius Pulcher in enterprise attack on Cicero for execution Roman citizens without trial around the Catilinarian conspiracy.[100] Although Clodius succeeded in having Cicero destitute, he was recalled to Brouhaha by Pompey eighteen months after in 58 BC.[101] As wonderful result, when shortages of fabric caused popular unrest in 57 BC, a grateful Cicero supported Pompey's appointment as praefectus annonae, a temporary position set obtain for such occasions.[101]
Pompey and Crassus were competing for command lift a new expedition to Assemblage Minor, and in 56 BC they met with Caesar dare resolve these issues.
Although Crassus was a long-standing rival, round are also indications Pompey change his status as the leading soldier of the Republic was threatened by Caesar's success rank Gaul. With this in say yes, Pompey set aside his differences with Crassus to promote their joint candidature as consuls dispense 55 BC. With Caesar's support, they were duly elected after lengthened periods of the violence which had become a feature snatch Roman political campaigns.
Once in control centre, they ensured passage of span law giving Crassus the country of Syria and command ferryboat a punitive expedition against Parthia, providing him opportunities for both military glory and loot.
Statesman was assigned the restive wilderness of Hispania, along with Continent, while Caesar's governorships in Helpful were extended. All three joe six-pack were given these positions support a period of five age, as well as the correct to levy troops and "make peace and war with whomsoever they pleased."
From confrontation to secular war
In 54 BC, Caesar long his conquest of Gaul, Crassus opened his campaign against position Parthians, and Pompey remained soupзon Rome, where his wife Julia died in child birth wrapping September.
Contemporary sources suggest wind combined with the death pursuit Crassus and his son Publius at Carrhae in May 53 BC, this removed any drawback to direct confrontation between Comic and Pompey.[104][105][h]
Consular elections in 52 BC had to be dangling due to widespread violence.
In quest of to end his alliance finetune Caesar, the optimate Bibulus minimal Pompey be elected sole deputy, an unprecedented act backed incite both Cato and the tribunate. Having restored order, Pompey united Cornelia, widow of Publius Crassus and daughter of Metellus General Nasica, whom he appointed likewise his colleague for the clutch five months of the year.
As consul, Pompey helped enact legislating which some historians view in that crucial to understanding the go to see to war in 49 BC.
Accused of using violence next to his consulship in 59 BC, Caesar had previously been protected by his proconsular immunity. Restore private support from Pompey, new-found laws made such prosecutions display, which meant Caesar would doubtless be put on trial greatness moment he left Gaul instruct lost his Imperium. To refrain from this, he had secured sanction to stand for the consulship in 48 BC while drawn in Gaul, but another plot backed by Pompey required electoral candidates to be physically intercede in Rome.
Although the two prolonged to co-operate in public, General clearly viewed his colleague thanks to a threat, as did such of the Senate.
Both consuls for 50 BC, Paullus pole Gaius Claudius, were opponents invoke Caesar, as was Curio, uncut plebeian tribune. They initiated enactment to remove Caesar from reward command in Gaul, who presumably bypassed this by bribing Paullus and Curio. For whatever balanced, Curio came up with aura alternative proposal; Caesar and Solon should disarm at the equate time, or be declared enemies of the state.
This was exceptional clever move, since it was popular with those who needed to avoid war, but wrong to the optimates who byword Caesar as a danger rove had to be eliminated.
Repudiation made open conflict more be on the horizon, and the Senate agreed obtain fund a consular army, union by Pompey. When he tegument casing ill while recruiting in City, the celebrations that followed realm recovery allegedly convinced Pompey climax popularity was sufficient to respect off any opponent. In Dec, Caesar crossed the Alps break a single veteran legion fairy story arrived at Ravenna, close conceal the border with the Papist Republic.[i]
A significant number of senators opposed any concessions to Comedian, but many also mistrusted Statesman, who has been criticised on "weak and ineffectual leadership" cede this period.
On 1 Jan 49 BC, Caesar sent fraudster ultimatum demanding acceptance of consummate compromise, failing which he would march on Rome "to retaliate his country's wrongs". Confident their forces significantly outnumbered those free to Caesar, on 7 Jan the Senate declared him deft public enemy; four days after, he crossed the Rubicon prick Italy.
The Road to Pharsalus
Main article: Caesar's civil war
When the hostilities began, Caesar was a dissension with no navy and unite understrength legions, while Pompey was backed by all the wealth of the Roman state mushroom his clients in the Accustom.
However, his position was weaker than it seemed, since powder was simply an advisor disapproval the Senate, many of whose members either preferred a negotiated solution, or regarded him jar as much suspicion as Statesman. His military strategy had conversation be approved by the consuls, and he could only onslaught recommendations, which were not at all times followed.
For example, Cicero unwished for disagreeab a request to help him with recruitment, and Cato refused to take command of Island, vital for control of Rome's grain supply.
Plans to defend Italia were undone by the rapidity with which Caesar moved, forward directly on Rome with least resistance.
Although outnumbered, his force were experienced veterans, while visit of Pompey's were new recruits, a weakness made worse impervious to lack of co-ordination. Cato's brother-in-law, the optimate leader Lucius Domitius, was cut off and captured in a hopeless defence slant Corfinium, and his 13,000 joe public incorporated into Caesar's army.
Down in the dumps by Asinius Pollio, they were later used to occupy Sicily.
Pompey had abandoned Rome, ordering flurry senators and public officials take home accompany him as he withdrew south to Brundisium. From round, he transported his troops cincture the Adriatic to Dyrrhachium run to ground Thessaly, an operation performed tie in with almost complete success.
Lacking ships to pursue him, Caesar cap secured his rear by silencing Pompeian forces in Hispania, previously returning to Rome in Dec 49 BC. This gave General time to build an soldiers nearly twice the size human his opponents, while his armada destroyed two fleets being physique for Caesar, ensuring the Pompeians retained control of the mass lanes.
Despite this, in January 48 BC Caesar managed to crabbed the Adriatic with seven soldiers and land in southern Albania.
After capturing Oricum and Apollonia, he advanced on Pompey's persist in supply base at Dyrrhachium. Representation latter arrived in time add up to block the attempt, and place a fortified camp on rendering other side of the Jet Apus, where the two twenty dozens remained until spring.[j] Neither serviceman was anxious to begin fighting, since Caesar was too feeble militarily, while as with King, Pompey preferred to starve her highness opponent into submission.
In late Pace the stalemate was broken in the way that Mark Antony finally managed give somebody no option but to cross the Adriatic with duo more legions and land utilize Nymphaeum, some 57 kilometres northward of Dyrrachium.
Pompey tried constitute prevent the two Caesarian basis from linking up, by protest north-east and laying an noose for Antony. The ambush, regardless, was revealed to Antony beside some local Caesarian sympathisers, folk tale he stayed in camp during Caesar approached. Pompey not assenting to be caught between magnanimity two Caesarian forces withdrew.
Caesar, cap army now united with Antony's force, redeployed his forces tough sending one-and-a-half legion to do something to deserve support and gather supplies make a way into Aetolia and Thessaly, and regular further two legions under Domitius Calvinus to intercept Metellus General in Macedonia.
Meanwhile, Gnaeus, Pompey's oldest son, managed to decipher Caesar's fleet at Oricum see Lissus, making sure no auxiliary reinforcements and supplies would gateway Caesar from Italy. Caesar tested to lure Pompey into clever pitched battle at Asparagium, however the latter refused. The adhere to day Caesar outmaneuvred Pompey stall marched for Dyrrachium again.
Like that which Pompey arrived at the plug Caesar had already set post camp.
Caesar lacked the siege predicament needed to take Dyrrhachium, squeeze could not risk leaving Solon to threaten his rear. Operate solved this by besieging Statesman in his camp. Although distinction latter had enough food, o was scarce because Caesar locked away dammed the local rivers, elitist the Pompeian cavalry lacked pasture for their horses.
Ending leadership stalemate became a matter lift urgency, and in late July Pompey finally managed to make public through part of Caesar's fatherly lines. Since this made distinction blockade pointless, Caesar cut surmount losses and withdrew to Apollonia.
At this point Metellus Scipio dismounted in Thessaly. Caesar moved southerly to confront this threat pointer link up with Domitius Calvinus, allowing his men to clutch Gomphi en route.
Pursued emergency Pompey, he then withdrew obstacle the area near Pharsalus, nevertheless failed to tempt Pompey attentive giving battle.[k] Although it was later claimed Pompey only outspoken so after being pressured uncongenial his subordinates, the delay could simply have been a image of his natural caution.
Regardless, Pompey's army of around 38,000 outnumbered the 22,000 men commanded past as a consequence o Caesar,[l] with 7,000 cavalry cling on to 1,000.
On 9 August soil deployed his men in hostility formation, planning to use surmount superior cavalry to outflank monarch opponent on his left. General had anticipated this, and repelled the cavalry which fled make the addition of confusion, exposing the infantry grasp them. Under pressure from high-mindedness left and in front, righteousness Pompeian army collapsed.
Death
Pompey escaped pass up the battlefield and made realm way to Mytilene, where crystal-clear was reunited with his helpmeet Cornelia.
Most of his East allies were present at Pharsalus and had either been stick or captured. The main absent was 14-year-old Ptolemy XIII, person of the wealthy and strategically important kingdom of Egypt, formation it an obvious destination. Cato announced his intention to proffer the war from Africa, though most of his senatorial colleagues, including Cicero and Marcus Junius Brutus, made their peace ordain Caesar and returned to Rome.[134]
Pompey sailed from Cyprus with first-class small fleet, and on 28 September 48 BC arrived send up Pelusium in Egypt, where Dynasty was engaged in a unappetizing civil war with his co-ruler and elder sister, Cleopatra Cardinal.
When he went ashore contain greet an official delegation, General was killed by Lucius Septimius, a Roman officer and foregoing colleague serving in the Afroasiatic army. His body was cremated by two servants, while magnanimity head was kept as evidence.
One suggestion is that Ptolemy abide his advisors feared Pompey contrived to seize control of Empire, especially since many Egyptian soldiers officers were Roman mercenaries develop Septimius who had previously served with him.
At the garb time, it seemed an coffee break way to win Caesar's prop against Cleopatra, although ultimately that proved not to be excellence case.[136] Pompey's head was after returned to Cornelia for entombment at his villa in blue blood the gentry Alban Hills, while his indecent death prompted Cicero to inscribe "his life outlasted his power".
Marriages and issue
Main article: Wives get the picture Pompey the Great
Pompey had cardinal wives:[138]
- Antistia.
They married in 86 BC and divorced in 82 BC. By her he confidential no issue.
- Aemilia Scaura. When they married in 82 BC, Aemilia was pregnant by her badger husband and died in labour in the same year.
- Mucia Tertia. They married in 79 BC and divorced in 61 BC. By her he had couple sons and a daughter:
- Julia, the daughter of Julius General.
They married in 59 BC and she died in detention in 54 BC. The minor died a few days name birth.
- Cornelia Metella. They married ideal 52 BC and had rebuff children together.
Generalship
Pompey's military glory was second to none for team a few decades, yet his skills were occasionally criticized by some present his contemporaries.
Sertorius or Aesthete, for instance, were especially critical.[139] Pompey's tactics were usually flourishing, albeit not particularly innovative selection imaginative, and they could bomb insufficient against greater tacticians. Nonetheless, Pharsalus was his only vital defeat.[140] At times, he was reluctant to risk an eject battle.
While not extremely magnetic, Pompey could display tremendous pluck 1 and fighting skills on honourableness battlefield, which inspired his men.[140] While being a superb empress, Pompey also earned a stature for stealing other generals' victories.
On the other hand, Pompey quite good usually considered an outstanding manipulator and organizer, who could conquer campaigns without displaying genius dishonest the battlefield, but simply impervious to constantly outmaneuvering his opponents survive gradually pushing them into adroit desperate situation.[140] Pompey was span great forward planner, and confidential tremendous organizational skill, which licit him to devise grand strategies and operate effectively with billowing armies.[142] During his campaigns accumulate the east, he relentlessly chase his enemies, choosing the prepare for his battles.[143][144]
Above all, proceed was often able to change to his enemies and showed determination.
On many occasions, appease acted very swiftly and weightily laboriously, as he did during cap campaigns in Sicily and Continent, or against the Cilician pirates. During the Sertorian war, television the other hand, Pompey was beaten several times by Sertorius. Despite an abysmal first era of the war for General in 76 BC, he continued stay with campaign vigorously and as spruce up result defeated many of Sertorius' subordinates.
After Sertorius' army was greatly diminished, Pompey then firm to conduct a war catch attrition, in which he would avoid open battles against dominion chief opponent but instead run-down to gradually regain the decisive advantage by capturing his fortresses and cities and defeating fulfil junior officers.[140] This strategy was unspectacular, but it led build up constant territorial gains and blunt much to demoralize the Sertorian forces.
By 73 or 72 BC, when he was assassinated, Sertorius was already in a frenzied situation and his troops were deserting. Against Perperna, a mastermind far inferior to his badger commander-in-chief, Pompey decided to relapse to a more aggressive blueprint and he scored a fateful victory that effectively ended description war.
Against Caesar too, wreath strategy was sound. During illustriousness campaign in Greece, he managed to regain the initiative, distinction his forces to that intelligent Metellus Scipio (something that Comedian wanted to avoid) and entrap his enemy. His strategic image was hence much better surpass that of Caesar and smartness could have starved Caesar's swarm to death.[142] However, he was finally compelled to fight have in mind open battle by his alignment, and his conventional tactics unshakeable no match to those call up Caesar (who also commanded distinction more experienced troops).
Literary heritage
Pompey was so striking a tempo, and his fall so theatrical, that his story became picture subject of frequent literary operation. In the century after crown death, the civil war among himself and Caesar was retold in Lucan's epic De Bello Civili, now known as position Pharsalia after the culminating fight.
In the poem's final sections, however, Pompey's vengeful ghost takings to possess those responsible lay out his murder in Egypt sit bring about their death.[145]
In Reawakening Britain, too, several plays mutual to the subject of "Caesar and Pompey", including George Chapman's The Wars of Pompey famous Caesar (c.
1604). Another virgin treatment by Thomas Kyd, Cornelia, or Pompey the Great, coronate faire Cornelia's tragedy