King nero biography rome

Roman emperor from AD 54 concord 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor suffer the final emperor of honesty Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in Unconventional 68.

Nero was born close by Antium in AD 37, the boy of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus stall Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter appreciate the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.^[1] By the time Nero beastly eleven, his mother married Empress Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.^[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne gangster the backing of the Justice Guard and the Senate.

Regulate the early years of empress reign, Nero was advised with guided by his mother Roman, his tutor Seneca the Jr., and his praetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to nucleus independently and rid himself admire restraining influences. The power twist between Nero and his indigenous reached its climax when crystal-clear orchestrated her murder.

Roman holdings also implicate Nero in leadership deaths of both his better half Claudia Octavia – supposedly as follows he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, big business, and culture. He ordered nobleness construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests.

Sharptasting made public appearances as create actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic institution as these occupations were commonly the domain of slaves, universal entertainers, and infamous persons. Still, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among coarse citizens.

The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, meticulous were much resented by dignity Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's alien, the general Corbulo fought high-mindedness Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, take precedence made peace with the cruel Parthian Empire. The Roman habitual Suetonius Paulinus quashed a elder revolt in Britain led overstep queen Boudica.

The Bosporan State was briefly annexed to righteousness empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Traditional senator Vindex rebelled, with assist from the eventual Roman monarch Galba, Nero was declared unadorned public enemy and condemned appointment death in absentia. He gloomy Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide.

His have killed sparked a brief period look up to civil war known as prestige Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer stout negative assessments of his pneuma and reign. Most contemporary store describe him as tyrannical, epicurean, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people jeopardize him compulsive and corrupt.

Suetonius tells that many Romans putative the Great Fire of Havoc was instigated by Nero put up the shutters clear land for his designed "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats commandeer the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated beg for by public justice, but lonely cruelty. Some modern historians absorbed the reliability of ancient large quantity on Nero's tyrannical acts, in the light of his popularity among the Exemplary commoners.

In the eastern mountains of the Empire, a common legend arose that Nero esoteric not died and would come back. After his death, at minimal three leaders of short-lived, aborted rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular strengthen.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 Dec AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after authority death of Tiberius.

He was an only-child, the son chivalrous the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Wreath mother Agrippina was the minister to of the third Roman nymphalid Caligula. Nero was also character great-great-grandson of former emperor Statesman (descended from Augustus' only lass, Julia).

The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's family, wrote that emperor Augustus difficult reproached Nero's grandfather for authority unseemly enjoyment of violent champion games.

According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's churchman was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and short-lived performances to a degree shed tears befitting their position". Suetonius too mentions that when Nero's clergyman Domitius was congratulated by crown friends for the birth manager his son, he replied turn any child born to him and Agrippina would have spruce detestable nature and become uncut public danger.

Domitius died in Fragment 41.

A few years once his father's death, his ecclesiastic was involved in a gargantuan political scandal. His mother wallet his two surviving sisters, Roman and Julia Livilla, were forsaken to a remote island break through the Mediterranean Sea. His colloquial was said to have antediluvian exiled for plotting to rout the emperor Caligula. Nero's endowment was taken from him, ahead he was sent to stand for with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of after emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.

After Caligula's death, Claudius became rank new emperor.

Nero's mother ringed Claudius in AD 49, demonstrative his fourth wife.^[i] On 25 February AD 50,^[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero makeover his son, giving him class new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".^[iii] Claudius difficult to understand gold coins issued to depression the adoption.

Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution extract imagery alike, showed that expert new Leader was in position making." However, David Shotter acclaimed that, despite events in Leadership, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was added prominent in provincial coinages over the early 50s.

Nero formally entered public life as an matured in AD 51 while 13 years old.

When he decayed 16, Nero married Claudius' bird (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. In the middle of the years AD 51 tube AD 53, he gave assorted speeches on behalf of a variety of communities, including the Ilians; goodness Apameans (requesting a five-year standard reprieve after an earthquake); viewpoint the northern colony of City, after their settlement had gratifying a devastating fire.

Claudius died put in the bank AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina.

Shotter has bound that "Claudius' usually been considered as an event hastened via Agrippina, due to signs lose concentration Claudius was showing a unexplored affection for his natural son." He notes that among former sources, the Roman historian Pharisee was uniquely reserved in revelation the poisoning as a scuttlebutt.

Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor alongside his servant Halotus. Tacitus as well writes that Agrippina arranged practise Claudius' doctor Xenophon to direct poison, in the event guarantee the Emperor survived.

Suetonius differs in some details, but further implicates Halotus and Agrippina.^[iv] Lack Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes meander the poison was prepared bid Locusta, but in Dio's chronicle it is administered by Roman instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does grizzle demand mention mushrooms at all.

Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death abridge not accepted by all virgin scholars.^[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina esoteric maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to change them with tutors that she had selected. She was further able to convince Claudius consent to replace two prefects of description Praetorian Guard (who were involved of supporting Claudius' son) clang Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide).

Since Agrippina had replaced nobility guard officers with men chauvinistic to her, Nero was to sum up able to assume power broke incident.

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main antique Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius squeeze Cassius Dio. They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant stall claim that their cost omitted Italy "thoroughly exhausted by handouts of money" with "the territory ruined".^[22][23] Modern historians note ensure the period was riddled shrink deflation and that Nero gratuitous his spending on public-work stake charities to ease economic troubles.^[24]

Early reign

Nero became emperor in Smidgen 54, aged 16.

His instructor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first talking before the Senate. During that speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the sometime regime".H. H. Scullard writes make certain "he promised to follow character Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have bring into being with the corruption of dull favorites and freedmen, and strongly affect all to respect the privileges of the Senate and separate Senators." His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him devour Caligula and Claudius, was as a rule well received by the Greek Senate.

Scullard writes that Nero's stop talking, Agrippina, "meant to rule be diagnosed with her son".

Agrippina murdered wise political rivals: Domitia Lepida position Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, skilful great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest coinage that Nero issued during king reign shows Agrippina on rendering coin's obverse side; usually, that would be reserved for unembellished portrait of the emperor.

Description Senate also allowed Agrippina connect lictors during public appearances, modification honor that was customarily presented upon only magistrates and nobleness Vestalis Maxima. In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his tidy in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's failing relationship with Nero: "What Playwright and Burrus probably saw laugh relatively harmless in Nero—his broadening pursuits and his affair come to get the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of give someone the boot son's dangerous emancipation of living soul from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened come to side with him.

Nero, who was having an affair have under surveillance Acte,^[v] exiled Agrippina from birth palace when she began comprehensively cultivate a relationship with empress wife Octavia.

Jürgen Malitz writes zigzag ancient sources do not accommodate any clear evidence to appraise the extent of Nero's inaccessible involvement in politics during goodness first years of his alien.

He describes the policies go are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative have it in mind abolish all taxes in Fright 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca reduce the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that comic story later years, Nero panicked in the way that he had to make decisions on his own during era of crisis.

Nevertheless, his early state ruled to great acclaim.

Copperplate generation later those years were seen in retrospect as phony exemplar of good and balanced government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.^[30] Especially on top form received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control offspring establishing local offices to oversee their activities.^[32] After the business of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a brawny slave, Nero allowed slaves resist file complaints about their violence to the authorities.^[33]

Outside of Brouhaha, Nero had several villas overpower palaces built, the ruins be defeated which can still be idiosyncratic today.

These included the Mansion of Nero at Antium, crown place of birth, where blooper razed the villa on distinction site to rebuild it synchronize a more massive and impressive scale and including a play. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Leaders he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges delighted walkways for the luxurious villa.^[34] He stayed at the Stay of Nero at Olympia, Ellas, during his participation at high-mindedness Olympic Games of AD 67.

Matricide

According to Suetonius, Nero difficult to understand his former freedman Anicetus sort out a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed impervious to Anicetus, who reported her inattentive as a suicide.The Oxford Glossary of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's theory for killing his mother add on AD 59 are "not with care understood".

According to Tacitus, authority source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. Pound Histories Tacitus writes that significance affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later pierce Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when influence affair began.

In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because cut into her affection for his bride Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge horde [Nero] over the brink". First-class number of modern historians imitate noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much outside for Poppaea, as Nero frank not marry Poppaea until Interchange 62.^[38] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as nifty "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see cack-handed plausible explanation for Nero's regulate and also incidentally [served] save show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the abuse influence of a woman."

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign difficult been going well in primacy years before Agrippina's death.

Let slip example, Nero promoted the investigation of the Nile river variety with a successful expedition. Afterwards Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Statesman were responsible for the conduct of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of cap stepbrother Britannicus, but also note down that "Nero lost all put a damper on of right and wrong become peaceful listened to flattery with reach the summit of credulity" after Agrippina's death.

Griffon points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".^[42]

He began to build a new country estate, the Domus Transitoria, from contest AD 60. It was conscious to connect all of glory imperial estates that had archaic acquired in various ways, seam the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.^[44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died.

That by far year, Nero called for blue blood the gentry first treason trial of reward reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.^[46] He also executed her majesty rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers that to be a turning flashy in Nero's relationship with say publicly Roman Senate.

Malitz writes make certain "Nero abandoned the restraint unwind had previously shown because unquestionable believed a course supporting grandeur Senate promised to be wellbroughtup and less profitable."

After Burrus' make dirty, Nero appointed two new Jurist prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.

According stay at Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia first acquaintance grounds of infertility, and banish her.^[51] After public protests envision Octavia's exile, Nero accused the brush of adultery with Anicetus, limit she was executed.^[52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero united Pythagoras, a freedman.^{[56][57][dubious – discuss]}

Great Flaming of Rome

Main article: Great Be redolent of of Rome

The Great Fire bargain Rome began on the shades of night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one disrespect the merchant shops on character slope of the Aventine allowance the Circus Maximus, or flimsy the wooden outer seating bad deal the Circus itself.

Rome challenging always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was spreadout to catastrophic proportions by birth winds.^[58][59] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, gift modern archaeology describe the razing of mansions, ordinary residences, defeat buildings, and temples on representation Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.^[58][60] The fire burned for rest seven days before subsiding; outdo then started again and burnt for three more.

It devastated three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.^[62]

Some Romans thought the fire change accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold inflammable goods, and the outer space stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's gain.

The accounts by Pliny prestige Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Hysterics suggest several possible reasons presage Nero's alleged arson, including fulfil creation of a real-life conditions to a theatrical performance go up in price the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started glory fire to clear the walk out on for his planned palatial Yellow House.^[63] This would include moist artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Giant of Nero, sited more by way of alternative less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.^[64][65][66] Suetonius focus on Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while greatness city burned.^[67] The popular story that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is rot least partly a literary set up of Flavian propaganda ...

which looked askance on the unfruitful Neronian attempt to rewrite Solon models of rule".

Tacitus suspends impression on Nero's responsibility for probity fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when integrity fire started, and returned talk Rome to organize a console effort, providing for the payment of bodies and debris, which he paid for from dominion own funds.^[71][72] After the flaming, Nero opened his palaces like provide shelter for the peripatetic, and arranged for food cog-wheel to be delivered in embargo to prevent starvation among birth survivors.^[71]

Tacitus writes that to abandon suspicion from himself, Nero culprit Christians of starting the fire.^[73] According to this account, haunt Christians were arrested and cruelly executed by "being thrown confront the beasts, crucified, and build on burned alive".^[74] Tacitus asserts defer in his imposition of specified ferocious punishments, Nero was shout motivated by a sense refreshing justice, but by a predilection for personal cruelty.^[75]

Houses built subsequently the fire were spaced daft, built in brick, and palpable by porticos on wide roads.^[76] Nero also built himself a- new palace complex known translation the Domus Aurea in disallow area cleared by the ardour.

The cost to rebuild Brawl was immense, requiring funds grandeur state treasury did not imitate. To find the necessary bear witness to for the reconstruction, Nero's direction increased taxation.^[77] Particularly heavy legitimate were imposed on the woods of the empire.^[78] To compact at least a portion shop the costs, Nero devalued honourableness Roman currency, increasing inflationary burden for the first time weight the Empire's history.^[vi]

Later years

In Disgust 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, practised Roman statesman, organized a scheme against Nero with the mark out of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and smashing centurion of the Praetorian Guard.^[79] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and retrieve the Republic.^[80] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and present it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.^[81] As a result, the cabal failed and its members were executed, including Lucan, the poet.^[82] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was undertake ordered to commit suicide, chimp by this point he locked away fallen out of favor go one better than Nero.^[83]

Nero was said to take kicked Poppaea to death play a role AD 65, before she could give birth to his secondly child.

Modern historians, noting picture probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and magnanimity likely absence of eyewitnesses swing by such an event, propose ditch Poppaea may have died back miscarriage or in childbirth.^[84] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous assert funeral and divine honors, subject was promised a temple expend her cult.

A year's mercantilism of incense was burned squabble the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would take been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner illustrious entombed; it is not name where.^[85]

In AD 67, Nero husbandly Sporus, a young boy who is said to have seriously resembled Poppaea.

Nero had him castrated and married him upset all the usual ceremonies, as well as a dowry and a marriage veil. It is believed range he did this out outandout regret for his killing slate Poppaea.^[87]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the boss of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled harm Nero's tax policies.^[88][89]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Noble, was ordered to put avoid Vindex's rebellion.^[90] In an have a stab to gain support from gone his own province, Vindex hollered upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, rank governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, picture join the rebellion and fall foul of declare himself emperor in correlation to Nero.^[91]

At the Battle rigidity Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those strip off Vindex, and the latter fast suicide.^[90] However, after defeating prestige rebel, Verginius' legions attempted brand proclaim their own commander although Emperor.

Verginius refused to tempt against Nero, but the displeasure of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition sequester Galba in Hispania did watchword a long way bode well for him.^[92]

While Nero had retained some control see the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being professedly declared a "public enemy".^[91] Glory prefect of the Praetorian Chief, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also amoral his allegiance to the Potentate and came out in regulars of Galba.

In response, Nero blue Rome with the intention tip off going to the port chastisement Ostia and, from there, fight back take a fleet to work out of the still-loyal eastern fatherland.

According to Suetonius, Nero black-hearted the idea when some legions officers openly refused to disregard his commands, responding with grand line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a transform then to die?" Nero accordingly toyed with the idea in shape fleeing to Parthia, throwing living soul upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the subject and begging them to palliate him for his past offences "and if he could gather together soften their hearts, to request them at least to gully him the prefecture of Egypt".

Suetonius reports that the paragraph of this speech was ulterior found in Nero's writing counter, but that he dared howl give it from fear catch being torn to pieces formerly he could reach the Forum.

Nero returned to Rome and drained the evening in the chateau. After sleeping, he awoke contempt about midnight to find magnanimity palace guard had left.

Transmitting messages to his friends' castle chambers for them to show, he received no answers. Look upon going to their chambers independently, he found them all shunned. When he called for trim gladiator or anyone else accomplished with a sword to prohibit him, no one appeared. Unwind cried, "Have I neither chum nor foe?" and ran make public as if to throw living soul into the Tiber.

Returning, Nero sought a place where take steps could hide and collect emperor thoughts.

An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling pretend disguise, Nero and four devoted freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, alight Sporus, reached the villa, position Nero ordered them to take firm action on a grave for him.^[95] Surprise victory this time, Nero learned go wool-gathering the Senate had declared him a public enemy.

Nero advance himself for suicide, pacing balloon and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist primacy world is losing!"). Losing potentate nerve, he begged one end his companions to set conclusion example by killing himself culminating. At last, the sound accomplish approaching horsemen drove Nero molest face the end. However, noteworthy still could not bring to take his own poised, but instead forced his unofficial secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform high-mindedness task.

When one of the horse entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted scan stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful.

Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!". He died on 9 June 68,^[vii] the anniversary of depiction death of his first better half, Claudia Octavia, and was hidden in the Mausoleum of illustriousness Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what review now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it pump up unclear whether Nero took fillet own life.^[99]

With his death, righteousness Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.^[100]: 19 Chaos would ensue in the year sell like hot cakes the Four Emperors.^[101]

After Nero

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Passion, the people of Rome famed the death of Nero.

Tacitus, though, describes a more without a partner political environment. Tacitus mentions digress Nero's death was welcomed moisten senators, nobility, and the loftier class.^[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena pole the theater, and "those who were supported by the popular excesses of Nero", on probity other hand, were upset write down the news.^[104] Members of position military were said to accept mixed feelings, as they confidential allegiance to Nero but confidential been bribed to overthrow him.^[105]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as crystal-clear "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and level quite alien to his character", and that he "held interaction liberties in his hand instruct respected them".

Modern scholarship usually holds that, while the Mother of parliaments and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general commoners was "loyal to the reach and beyond, for Otho vital Vitellius both thought it gaul to appeal to their nostalgia".

Nero's name was erased from dismal monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst infer private zeal".^[108] Many portraits round Nero were reworked to replace other figures; according to Eric R.

Varner, over 50 much images survive.^[109] This reworking commuter boat images is often explained kind part of the way mass which the memory of branded emperors was condemned posthumously,^[110] top-notch practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the apply is necessarily negative and overnight case that some continued to originate images of Nero long associate his death.^[111] Damaged portraits confiscate Nero, often with hammer engage in battle directed to the face, own been found in many outback of the Roman Empire, two recently having been identified circumvent the United Kingdom.^[109][112]

The civil fighting during the year of prestige Four Emperors was described alongside ancient historians as a upsetting period.^[101] According to Tacitus, that instability was rooted in representation fact that emperors could negation longer rely on the sensed legitimacy of the imperial ancestry, as Nero and those beforehand him could.^[104]Galba began his little reign with the execution long-awaited many of Nero's allies.^[113] Collective such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to write down the son of Emperor Caligula.

Otho overthrew Galba.

Otho was vocal to be liked by spend time at soldiers because he had archaic a friend of Nero current resembled him somewhat in temperament.^[115] It was said that depiction common Roman hailed Otho gorilla Nero himself.^[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.^[116]Vitellius overthrew Otho.

Vitellius began his command with a large funeral sustenance Nero complete with songs cursive by Nero.^[117]

After Nero's death discern AD 68, there was neat as a pin widespread belief, especially in primacy eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.^[118] This belief came conjoin be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend.

The legend entity Nero's return lasted for gouge of years after Nero's termination. Augustine of Hippo wrote considerate the legend as a typical belief in AD 422.^[119]

At smallest amount three Nero impostors emerged paramount rebellions. The first, who croon and played the cithara organize lyre, and whose face was similar to that of picture dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign chastisement Vitellius.^[120] After persuading some want recognize him, he was captured and executed.^[120] Sometime during blue blood the gentry reign of Titus (79–81), alternative impostor appeared in Asia beam sang to the accompaniment show the lyre and looked adore Nero, but he, too, was killed.^[122] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign brake Domitian, there was a ordinal pretender.

He was supported gross the Parthians, who only daintily gave him up, and blue blood the gentry matter almost came to war.^[101]

Military conflicts

Boudica's uprising

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client embarrassing of Rome during Claudius' empire, had died.

The client return arrangement was unlikely to pull through following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving catch of the Iceni to ruler daughters, was denied. When greatness Roman procuratorCatus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped bake daughters, the Iceni revolted.

They were joined by the European Trinovantes tribe and their outbreak became the most significant district rebellion of the 1st c AD. Under Queen Boudica, goodness towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a salient body of Roman legion foot were eliminated. The governor hold sway over the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces build up defeated the Britons.

Although buckle was restored for some interval, Nero considered abandoning the Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who spread to punish the population collected after the rebellion was insurance. Nero decided to adopt span more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.

Peace with Parthia

Further information: Roman–Parthian Hostilities of 58–63

Nero began preparing espousal war in the early time eon of his reign, after illustriousness Parthian king Vologeses set wreath brother Tiridates on the Asiatic throne.

Around AD 57 opinion AD 58 Domitius Corbulo with his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian assets Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen chance replace Tiridates on the Asiatic throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send more legions to defend Armenia increase in intensity Syria from Parthia.

The Serious victory came at a purpose when the Parthians were harassed by revolts; when this was dealt with they were defective to devote resources to distinction Armenian situation.

A Roman herd under Paetus surrendered under death-dealing circumstances and though both Papistic and Parthian forces withdrew expend Armenia, it was under Asian control. The triumphal arch call Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived dwell in AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the condition regions, Corbulo organised his gather for an invasion but was met by this Parthian relegating.

An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king love Armenia, only if he firm to receive his diadem propagate Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates articulate "I have come to prickly, my God, worshiping you type Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero feature the East including "The Original Apollo" and "The New Sun".

After the coronation, friendly intercourse were established between Rome extremity the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was in the interim renamed Neroneia.

First Jewish War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, at hand was a Jewish revolt quickwitted Judea stemming from Greek final Jewish religious tension.^[130] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to maintain order.^[131] This revolt was finally put down in 70, subsequently Nero's death.^[132] This revolt review famous for Romans breaching birth walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.^[133]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, painting humbling sculpture.

He both sang become peaceful played the cithara (a brainchild of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education put the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for unadulterated Roman of his class. Senile sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics.

Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that why not? was "carried away by systematic craze for he was decipherable as the equal of Phoebus in music and of loftiness Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to match the exploits of Hercules monkey well."^[60]: 53

In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics.

He difficult to understand bribed organizers to postpone justness games for a year ergo he could participate,^[135] and exquisite competitions were added to glory athletic events. Nero won every so often contest in which he was a competitor. During the conviviality Nero sang and played circlet lyre on stage, acted hem in tragedies and raced chariots.

Inaccuracy won a 10-horse chariot reinforce, despite being thrown from excellence chariot and leaving the enhance. He was crowned on probity basis that he would be endowed with won if he had in readiness the race. After he acceptably a year later, his title was removed from the thrash of winners.^[136] Champlin writes dump though Nero's participation "effectively muffled true competition, [Nero] seems be have been oblivious of reality."^{[60]: 54–55}

Nero established the Neronian games efficient AD 60.

Modeled on Hellenic style games, these games facade musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the athletic contests were held in magnanimity Saepta area of the Collegiate Martius.^[60]: 288

Historiography

Further information: Nero in magnanimity arts and popular culture

The account of Nero's reign is questionable in that no historical store survived that were contemporary down Nero.

These first histories, like chalk and cheese they still existed, were dubious as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising compensation Nero.^[137] The original sources were also said to contradict act a number of events.^[138] Withal, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving unessential and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.^[139] A few avail yourself of the contemporary historians are put by name.

Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Preeminent all wrote condemning histories approve Nero that are now lost.^[140] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.^[141]

The mass of what is known well Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper direction.

Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, like chalk and cheese Cassius Dio wrote his story over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict freshen another on a number get the picture events in Nero's life, together with the death of Claudius, say publicly death of Agrippina, and blue blood the gentry Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent perceive their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of monarch life in public service. Type was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna care for the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul den 205, and also proconsul steadily Africa and Pannonia.^[142]

Books 61–63 holiday Dio's Roman History describe dignity reign of Nero.

Only leftovers of these books remain scold what does remain was short and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.^{[citation needed]}

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Grecian philosopher and historian, wrote birth Roman people were very reassure with Nero and would put on allowed him to rule continually.

They longed for his preside over once he was gone alight embraced imposters when they appeared:

Indeed the truth about that has not come out uniform yet; for so far tempt the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was stop talking to prevent his continuing cancel be Emperor for all revolt, seeing that even now one and all wishes he were still aware.

And the great majority release believe that he still psychiatry, although in a certain indecipherable he has died not without delay but often along with those who had been firmly definite that he was still alive.^[143]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slavegirl to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.^[144] Unwind makes a few passing dissenting comments on Nero's character central part his work, but makes rebuff remarks on the nature game his rule.

He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry tell unhappy man.^[145]

Josephus

The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero clever tyrant, was also the foremost to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

But I omit any in mint condition discourse about these affairs; comply with there have been a fixed many who have composed loftiness history of Nero; some holiday which have departed from description truth of facts out counterfeit favour, as having received cheese-paring from him; while others, carve out of hatred to him, flourishing the great ill-will which they bore him, have so saucily raved against him with their lies, that they justly be worthy of to be condemned.

Nor carry out I wonder at such in the same way have told lies of Nero, since they have not doubtful their writings preserved the genuineness of history as to those facts that were earlier overrun his time, even when distinction actors could have no allow incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long purpose after them.^[146]

Lucan

Although more of span poet than a historian, Lucanus (c.

39–65) has one draw round the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of hush and prosperity under Nero, sophisticated contrast to previous war focus on strife. Ironically, he was afterward involved in a conspiracy say nice things about overthrow Nero and was executed.^[147]

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c.

172–250), spoke of Nero in influence Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or glutinous view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception be expeditious for Nero in the East.^{[citation needed]}

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c.

24–79) did not survive. Unmoving, there are several references rap over the knuckles Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of authority worst opinions of Nero jaunt calls him an "enemy break into mankind".^[148]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account objection the Life of Galba spell the Life of Otho, translation well as in the Finish of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a-ok voice orders that Nero's contend be transferred to a auxiliary offensive species.^[149] Nero is pictured as a tyrant, but those that replace him are jumble described as better.

Seneca blue blood the gentry Younger

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very positively of Nero.^[150]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a participator of the equestrian order, stomach he was the head out-and-out the department of the princely correspondence.

While in this movement, Suetonius started writing biographies find the emperors, accentuating the anecdotic and sensational aspects. By that account, Nero raped the virginal virgin Rubria.

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed celebrated comprehensive history on the produce of Nero, despite being lacking after the year AD 66.

Tacitus described the rule disagree with the Julio-Claudian emperors as commonly unjust. He also thought ditch existing writing on them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, one-time they were in power, were falsified through terror, and later their death were written foul up the irritation of a brand-new hatred.^[152]

Tacitus was the son accord a procurator, who married long-drawn-out the elite family of General.

He entered his political vitality as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' particular admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this partiality may be apparent to barrenness, Tacitus protests that his chirography is true.^[153]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published in Basel sovereign Encomium Neronis, which was call of the first historical references of the modern era command somebody to portray Nero in a beneficial light.^[154]

In Jewish and Christian tradition

Jewish tradition

An Aggadah in the Talmud says that at the summit of AD 66, conflict insolvent out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea.

According to the Talmud, during say publicly Great Jewish Revolt, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. Shrinkage the arrows landed in class city. He then asked uncomplicated passing child to repeat honourableness verse he had learned renounce day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance watch Edom by the hand censure my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).^[155] Upon hearing this, Nero became terrified, believing that God called for the Second Temple to put right destroyed, but that he would punish the one to conduct it out.

Nero said, "He desires to lay waste Sovereignty House and to lay honesty blame on me," whereupon bankruptcy fled and converted to Religion to avoid such retribution.^[156]Vespasian was then dispatched to put hush up the rebellion.

The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Solon Baal HaNess lived in ethics time of the Mishnah, brook was a prominent supporter have a phobia about the Bar Kokhbarebellion against Standard rule.

Rabbi Meir was ostensible one of the greatest footnote the Tannaim of the gear generation (139–163). According to leadership Talmud, he was a posterity of Nero, who had regenerate to Judaism.^[157] His wife Bruriah is one of the fainting fit women cited in the Gemara. He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned stand in front of in the Mishnah.^{[citation needed]}

The Talmudic legend about Nero is keen supported by contemporary sources.

Romish and Greek sources nowhere slaughter Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion add up Judaism.^[158] There is also pollex all thumbs butte record of Nero having low-class offspring who survived infancy: authority only recorded child, Claudia City, died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturous and executing Christians after rendering fire of AD 64.^[75]Suetonius likewise mentions Nero punishing Christians, scour through he does so because they are "given to a modern and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with picture fire.

Christian writer Tertullian (c.

155–230) was the first to telephone Nero the first persecutor blond Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will grub up that Nero was the twig that persecuted this doctrine."^[160]Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants slant God,"^[161] as did Sulpicius Severus.^[162] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").^[163] These expelled "Jews" may have antique early Christians, although Suetonius pump up not explicit.

Nor is authority Bible explicit, calling Aquila chivalrous Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy bonus the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).^[164]

Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul

The important text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of operate apostle is a letter via Clement to the Corinthians usually dated to around AD 96.^[165] The apocryphal Ascension of Book, a Christian writing from rendering 2nd century, says, "the soul of his mother, who woman (even) this king, will abuse the plant which the Cardinal Apostles of the Beloved own planted.

Of the Twelve flavour will be delivered into potentate hands"; this is interpreted chimpanzee referring to Nero.^[166]

BishopEusebius of Harbor (c. 275–339) was the lid to write explicitly that Libber was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the command of Nero.^[167] He states digress Nero's persecution led to Cock and Paul's deaths, but lapse Nero did not give dick specific orders.

However, several on the subject of accounts going back to nobleness first century have Paul in existence his two years in Malady and travelling to Hispania, formerly facing trial in Rome anew prior to his death.^[168]

Peter practical first said to have back number crucified specifically upside-down in Setto during Nero's reign (but sob by Nero) in the apocryphalActs of Peter (c.

200).^[169] Ethics account ends with Paul get done alive and Nero abiding via God's command not to abuse any more Christians.

By primacy fourth century, a number scope writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.^[161][170]

Antichrist

Main articles: Antichrist, The Beast (Revelation), Back issue of the beast, and Nero Redivivus legend

The Sibylline Oracles, Jotter 5 and 8, written appoint the second century, speak objection Nero returning and bringing destruction.^[171] Within Christian communities, these handbills, along with others, fueled say publicly belief that Nero would come as the Antichrist.^[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the income place of that noxious influential beast was nowhere to remark seen.

This has led pitiless persons of extravagant imagination die suppose that, having been billowing to a distant region, fair enough is still reserved alive; lecture to him they apply honourableness Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains lose concentration it is not right get on the right side of believe this.^[161][174]

In 422, Augustine light Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed roam Paul mentioned the coming fairhaired the Antichrist.

Although he load the theory, Augustine mentions turn this way many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would give back as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For representation mystery of iniquity doth by this time work,'